“Jihad” has never had only one meaning. Spiritual struggle, classical warfare, legal doctrine and modern jihadism must be separated before the subject can be understood honestly.

The caliphate was not invented by ISIS. For centuries it represented competing claims to political and religious authority — and the idea remains influential today.

Religious organisations do not operate outside politics. The real question is where ordinary religious advocacy ends and organised Islamist political influence begins.

Money creates influence. European governments have increasingly questioned how foreign states and organisations finance religious institutions and ideological networks inside Europe.

Multicultural societies can accommodate difference. But what happens when communities develop competing social rules, informal coercion or institutions increasingly isolated from wider society?